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Er zijn veel manieren om iets over de wereld te weten te komen. Cultuurvakken als filosofie, theologie, geschiedenis en levensbeschouwing houden zich vooral bezig met alles wat mensen hebben bedacht en gemaakt. Ze houden zich allemaal bezig met het bestuderen van de menselijke samenleving, met hier en daar wat accentverschillen.
Het verschil tussen de verschillende disciplines is niet het onderwerp, maar de vragen die aan het onderwerp gesteld worden. De historicus vraagt zich af hoe het vroeger was en hoe het nu is, wat er in de loop der tijden is veranderd of juist hetzelfde gebleven. De andere disciplines zijn meer geïnteresseerd in hoe mensen voorlopige antwoorden formuleren op de uiteindelijke zin- en ethische vraag. Ze vragen zich af of het leven uiteindelijk de moeite waard is en hoe de mens uiteindelijk goed behoort te handelen.
Op mijn website kun je bestuderen hoe mensen door de eeuwen heen voorlopige antwoorden hebben geformuleerd op de verschillende levensvragen. In de loop der geschiedenis zijn er telkens weer verschillende voorlopige antwoorden geformuleerd, die ook nu nog het bestuderen waard zijn. Inspirerende personen, belangrijke geschriften en organisaties gaan ons, op deze website,
een beeld geven van de levensbeschouwelijke opvattingen van de mens door de eeuwen heen.
Kortom: Levensbeschouwing in context.
Prewar Jewish Life in Europe: 1. The Jews of Paris
The French Revolution was a turning point in the context of Jewish history in Europe. In theory Jews were now equal citizens, but the implementation of ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ seemed to be difficult. During The Napoleonic period the Jews were questioned about their loyalty to France. The Jews were not trusted in France, as we will see in the Dreyfus Affair. Napoleon issued The ‘Infamous Degree’ in 1808 restricting Jews (till 1818) economic activity and their freedom of movement. Anti-Semitism during the 19th century urge toward Jewish solidarity and cooperation between the two major Jewish Organizations in Paris, Consistoire and Alliance Israelite Universelle. But Isaac Adolphe Cremieux’s career (1796 – 1880) demonstrated the success achieved by an emancipated Jew, well acculturated in French society, and still highly involved in Jewish affairs.
The war between France and Germany changed the position of the Jews in France. France lost witch created political instability, and a rise in radical rationalistic trends among the public. Anti-Semitic newspapers began to appear. “The French Revolution had been a so-called plot of the Jews, who were allied with the Freemasons.” This changed atmosphere erupted in 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, an officer in the French army, was accused of treason and put on trial. Accused because he was the only Jew in the general staff. Officers of the general staff threatened to resign if Dreyfus was acquitted, and Anti-Semitic riots took place in different parts of the country. The count unanimously found Dreyfus guilty of treason and sentenced him to life imprisonment. On January 5, 1895, Dreyfus was public demoted in a degrading ceremony, during which he continued to proclaim: “I am innocent”.
It was more then a case of treason. France was divided between liberalism of the French Revolution versus extreme nationalism, Anti-Semitism and political conservatism. August Maurice Barres emphasized in his writings the importance of the French national heritage. Emile Zola on the other hand (article: J ‘accuse) fought for the values of the French Revolution and for a retrial. Finally in 1906 Dreyfus was reinstated in the army with his ranks and honors.
It was a shock for many Jews that in France, homeland of liberty and the great revolution this affair took place, particularly when the Jewish victim was completely assimilated. For the Jews of France the ‘happy end’ of the Dreyfus affair was the ultimate proof that emancipation and integration in French society was indeed the right way.
In the Interwar Period many Eastern Jews immigrated to Paris. The Jewish youth movements flourished in France but the Jewish community in Paris was afraid for new Anti-Semitism. The newcomers were viewed as people in need for acculturation. Leon Blum became the first Jewish (and socialist) prime minister of France (1936 – 1937). He became involved in French politics as a result of the Dreyfus Affair. Paris had become the largest Jewish community in Western Europe, third in the world after New York and Warsaw.
Triumph des Willens, een kijkwijzer bij dag 1
Triumph des Willens, een kijkwijzer bij dag 1 van de Neurenbergse Partijdagen, 1934. Een propagandafilm van Leni riefenstahl, in opdracht van de NSDAP en Adolf Hitler